[[.|[up]]]
====== formal writing ======

===== general rules =====

  * don't ask questions directly
      * example:
          * bad: What can be done to achieve …?
          * good: It is necessary to consider how to achieve …
  * don't address the reader
  * don't use contractions (it's, don't, …)
  * more formal vocabulary
      * example:
          * enquire instead of ask
          * most distressed instead of very unhappy
          * state instead of say
          * impolite instead of rude
  * avoid alliterations
  * avoid unnecessary adverbs (like, already, even)
  * use formal linking words
  * use passive forms
      * example:
          * bad: You have to consider all the parameters.
          * good: All the parameters need to be considered.
  * be indirect
      * example:
          * bad: it is stupid
          * good: it is not very intelligent
  * be tentative (seem, appear, could)
  * parallelism:
      * example:
          * bad: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent, and he should have sensitivity to cultural differences.
          * good: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent and sensitive to cultural differences.

===== formal vocabulary =====

^ informal    ^ formal                              ^
| find out    | determine                           |
|             | discover                            |
|             | investigate                         |
| come across | encounter                           |
| make up     | invent                              |
| go in(to)   | enter                               |
| put up with | tolerate                            |
|             | endure                              |
|             | accept                              |
| look into   | investigate                         |
|             | analyse                             |
| give in     | surrender                           |
| job         | position                            |
|             | employment                          |
|             | profession                          |
|             | post                                |
|             | career                              |
| many        | a (considerable) number / amount of |
|             | several                             |

===== formal negative expressions =====

^ informal       ^ formal     ^
| not any        | no         |
| didn't do      | did no     |
| not much       | little     |
| not many       | few        |
| didn't do much | did little |

===== formal linking words =====

  * for example
      * such as
      * including
      * e.g.
      * for example
  * run-on expressions
      * and so forth
      * etc
  * linking
      * firstly
      * secondly
      * finally
  * addition
      * and
      * not only … but also
      * furthermore
      * in addition
      * moreover
      * additionally
      * in addition to
      * as well as
  * unexpected result
      * yet
      * although
      * though
      * even though
      * however
      * nevertheless
      * despite
      * in spite of
      * regardless of
      * still (literary)
  * cause and effect
      * because
      * since
      * as
      * the reason why
      * now that
      * therefore
      * as a result
      * consequently
      * hence
      * thus
      * for this reason
      * thanks to
      * owing to
      * accordingly
      * because of
      * due to
      * as a result of
      * on account of
      * in view of
      * results in
      * leads to
      * impacts on
      * is responsible for
      * explains
      * is the cause of
      * is a factor in
      * influences
      * plays a part in
      * plays a role in
      * outcome
      * impact
      * effect
      * bring about
      * cause
      * give rise to
      * produce
      * precipitate
      * trigger
      * contributes to
      * under those circumstances
      * bring forth (too poetic, not used in natural sciences)
  * is caused by
      * arises from
      * is attributable to
      * is due to
      * derives from
      * stems from
      * results from
      * underlies
  * impedes
      * checks
      * inhibits
      * prevents
      * curbs
  * purpose
      * so as (not) to
      * so that
      * in order to
      * in order that
  * clarification
      * in other words
      * i.e. (no comma!)
      * that is
  * condition
      * if
      * even if
      * only if
      * unless
      * provided that
      * providing
      * as long as
      * in the event that
      * on condition that
      * so long as
      * when
      * whenever
      * whether or not
  * contrast
      * all the same,
      * while
      * whereas
      * in contrast to
      * however
      * unlike
      * even so
      * even though
      * nevertheless
      * although this may be true
      * on the contrary
      * at the same time
      * despite
      * in spite of
      * conversely
      * otherwise
      * regardless
  * exception
      * apart from
  * conclusion / summary
      * as can be seen
      * generally speaking
      * in the final analysis
      * all things considered
      * as shown above
      * in the long run
      * given these points
      * as has been noted
      * for the most part
      * in fact
      * in summary
      * in conclusion
      * in essence
      * altogether
      * to summarise
      * overall
      * to sum up
      * on the whole
      * all in all

===== misc =====

  * especially vs. specially
      * especially = in particular
      * specially = "extra"
          * examples:
              * He is especially proud of …
              * These were specially done for me.