[[.|[up]]]
====== grammar ======

===== the use of commas =====

  * sentence must have subject, verb and object
      * example:
          * <sub>S</sub>//I// <sub>V</sub>//know// <sub>O</sub>//that he will pass the exam//.
          * no comma after //know//! otherwise you get two incomplete sentences:
              * I know
              * that he will pass the exam
  * explanating clauses
      * example:
          * //My son, who lives in NYC, is an attorney.//
              * means: My only son is an attorney. By the way, he lives in NYC.
          * //My son who lives in NYC is an attorney.//
              * means: One of my sons lives in NYC. He is an attorney.
      * example:
          * //I had a cocktail, which was unusual.//
              * means: It is unusual for me to have cocktails.
          * //I had a cocktail which was unusual.//
              * means: The cocktail was unusual.

===== tenses =====

==== past ====

  * when something is clearly over
  * if there is a time reference
      * even if only in the speaker's head

==== present perfect ====

  * leading up to the present
      * example:
          * //I haven't been there yet.//
  * has result in the present
      * example:
          * //Why are you so sad? Because my girlfriend has left me.//
  * if takes place during time interval
      * example:
          * //I've phoned all morning.//
  * when time is unimportant
      * example:
          * //Have you ever eaten …?//
  * present perfect vs. past
      * continuous vs. discrete
          * examples:
              * //Have you ever seen …?//
                  * means: Have you seen it at all?
              * //Did you ever see …?//
                  * means: in one of the occassions in which that was possible?
      * open vs. closed
          * examples:
              * //She has suffered all her life.//
                  * means: and still does.
              * //She suffered all her life.//
                  * means: RIP
      * indefinite vs. definite
          * examples:
              * //Did you know that John has painted a portrait of Mary?//
              * //Did you know that John painted this portrait of Mary?//
      * transition present perfect → past:
          * after inclusion of a time reference
      * transition past → present perfect:
          * NEVER
  * present perfect progressive vs. present perfect
      * example:
          * ppp
              * scenario: not readily-painted ceiling
                  * //Ann's clothes are covered with paint. She has been painting the ceiling all day.//
          * pp
              * scenario: readily-painted ceiling
                  * //The ceiling was white. Now it's blue. Ann has painted the ceiling.//
      * example:
          * ppp
              * scenario: person running before finish line
                  * //He's been running the marathon for charity.//
          * pp
              * scenario: person after the race has been finished
                  * //He's run the marathon for charity. It's finally over!//

==== future ====

  * forms
      * prediction (not sure, may not happen)
          * example:
              * //George will leave tomorrow.//
      * strong intention
          * example:
              * //George is going to leave tomorrow.//
      * according to external source (e.g. time table)
          * example:
              * //George leaves tomorrow.//
      * personal arrangement
          * example:
              * //George is leaving tomorrow.//
      * very formal
          * examples:
              * //George is to leave tomorrow.//
              * //Please accompany my daughter, who is to marry.//
              * command: //You are to wait here until I come back.//
      * contingent future
          * examples
              * //If I am to succeed, I will have to work very hard.//
              * //When I get there, I will …//
              * //As soon as … , I will …//
              * //If I win, I will …//
              * //After I leave school, I will …//
              * //While I'm in NYC, I will …//
              * //Before I get too old, I will …//
      * inminent future
          * to be about to
          * to be on the point of
          * to be on the verge of (only to express negative ideas)
  * will vs. ing-form
      * example:
          * //I'm buying the meat.//
              * means: I'm going to do it for sure.
          * //OK, I'll buy the beer.//
              * means: I'm already buying the meat so it makes no difference.
      * example:
          * //I reckon it will cost 7,000.//
          * //The calculation arrived. It's going to cost 9,000.//
  * will/shall + progressive
      * example:
          * //Please give this to him.//
              * answers
                  * //OK. I'll see him tomorrow.//
                      * means: deciding now to help.
                  * //OK. I'll be seeing him tomorrow.//
                      * means: I'm seeing him anyway, so I've got no problem in helping.
      * example:
          * //When will you do it again?//
              * means: Do it!
          * //When will you be doing it again?//
              * means: I know you are going to do it sooner or later. Just let me know when.
  * statements are always non-progressive
      * example:
          * //The satellite will reach the moon on …//