home:languages:english:formal

don't ask questions directly
- example:
  - bad: What can be done to achieve …?
  - good: It is necessary to consider how to achieve …
don't address the reader
don't use contractions (it's, don't, …)
more formal vocabulary
- example:
  - enquire instead of ask
  - most distressed instead of very unhappy
  - state instead of say
  - impolite instead of rude
avoid alliterations
avoid unnecessary adverbs (like, already, even)
use formal linking words
use passive forms
- example:
  - bad: You have to consider all the parameters.
  - good: All the parameters need to be considered.
be indirect
- example:
  - bad: it is stupid
  - good: it is not very intelligent
be tentative (seem, appear, could)
parallelism:
- example:
  - bad: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent, and he should have sensitivity to cultural differences.
  - good: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent and sensitive to cultural differences.

informal	formal
find out	determine
	discover
	investigate
come across	encounter
make up	invent
go in(to)	enter
put up with	tolerate
	endure
	accept
look into	investigate
	analyse
give in	surrender
job	position
	employment
	profession
	post
	career
many	a (considerable) number / amount of
	several

informal	formal
not any	no
didn't do	did no
not much	little
not many	few
didn't do much	did little

for example
- such as
- including
- e.g.
- for example
run-on expressions
- and so forth
- etc
linking
- firstly
- secondly
- finally
addition
- and
- not only … but also
- furthermore
- in addition
- moreover
- additionally
- in addition to
- as well as
unexpected result
- yet
- although
- though
- even though
- however
- nevertheless
- despite
- in spite of
- regardless of
- still (literary)
cause and effect
- because
- since
- as
- the reason why
- now that
- therefore
- as a result
- consequently
- hence
- thus
- for this reason
- thanks to
- owing to
- accordingly
- because of
- due to
- as a result of
- on account of
- in view of
- results in
- leads to
- impacts on
- is responsible for
- explains
- is the cause of
- is a factor in
- influences
- plays a part in
- plays a role in
- outcome
- impact
- effect
- bring about
- cause
- give rise to
- produce
- precipitate
- trigger
- contributes to
- under those circumstances
- bring forth (too poetic, not used in natural sciences)
is caused by
- arises from
- is attributable to
- is due to
- derives from
- stems from
- results from
- underlies
impedes
- checks
- inhibits
- prevents
- curbs
purpose
- so as (not) to
- so that
- in order to
- in order that
clarification
- in other words
- i.e. (no comma!)
- that is
condition
- if
- even if
- only if
- unless
- provided that
- providing
- as long as
- in the event that
- on condition that
- so long as
- when
- whenever
- whether or not
contrast
- all the same,
- while
- whereas
- in contrast to
- however
- unlike
- even so
- even though
- nevertheless
- although this may be true
- on the contrary
- at the same time
- despite
- in spite of
- conversely
- otherwise
- regardless
exception
- apart from
conclusion / summary
- as can be seen
- generally speaking
- in the final analysis
- all things considered
- as shown above
- in the long run
- given these points
- as has been noted
- for the most part
- in fact
- in summary
- in conclusion
- in essence
- altogether
- to summarise
- overall
- to sum up
- on the whole
- all in all

especially vs. specially
- especially = in particular
- specially = "extra"
  - examples:
    - He is especially proud of …
    - These were specially done for me.

Table of Contents

formal writing

general rules

formal vocabulary

formal negative expressions

formal linking words

misc