Table of Contents
grammar
the use of commas
tenses
past
present perfect
future
[up]
grammar
the use of commas
sentence must have subject, verb and object
example:
S
I
V
know
O
that he will pass the exam
.
no comma after
know
! otherwise you get two incomplete sentences:
I know
that he will pass the exam
explanating clauses
example:
My son, who lives in NYC, is an attorney.
means: My only son is an attorney. By the way, he lives in NYC.
My son who lives in NYC is an attorney.
means: One of my sons lives in NYC. He is an attorney.
example:
I had a cocktail, which was unusual.
means: It is unusual for me to have cocktails.
I had a cocktail which was unusual.
means: The cocktail was unusual.
tenses
past
when something is clearly over
if there is a time reference
even if only in the speaker's head
present perfect
leading up to the present
example:
I haven't been there yet.
has result in the present
example:
Why are you so sad? Because my girlfriend has left me.
if takes place during time interval
example:
I've phoned all morning.
when time is unimportant
example:
Have you ever eaten …?
present perfect vs. past
continuous vs. discrete
examples:
Have you ever seen …?
means: Have you seen it at all?
Did you ever see …?
means: in one of the occassions in which that was possible?
open vs. closed
examples:
She has suffered all her life.
means: and still does.
She suffered all her life.
means: RIP
indefinite vs. definite
examples:
Did you know that John has painted a portrait of Mary?
Did you know that John painted this portrait of Mary?
transition present perfect → past:
after inclusion of a time reference
transition past → present perfect:
NEVER
present perfect progressive vs. present perfect
example:
ppp
scenario: not readily-painted ceiling
Ann's clothes are covered with paint. She has been painting the ceiling all day.
pp
scenario: readily-painted ceiling
The ceiling was white. Now it's blue. Ann has painted the ceiling.
example:
ppp
scenario: person running before finish line
He's been running the marathon for charity.
pp
scenario: person after the race has been finished
He's run the marathon for charity. It's finally over!
future
forms
prediction (not sure, may not happen)
example:
George will leave tomorrow.
strong intention
example:
George is going to leave tomorrow.
according to external source (e.g. time table)
example:
George leaves tomorrow.
personal arrangement
example:
George is leaving tomorrow.
very formal
examples:
George is to leave tomorrow.
Please accompany my daughter, who is to marry.
command:
You are to wait here until I come back.
contingent future
examples
If I am to succeed, I will have to work very hard.
When I get there, I will …
As soon as … , I will …
If I win, I will …
After I leave school, I will …
While I'm in NYC, I will …
Before I get too old, I will …
inminent future
to be about to
to be on the point of
to be on the verge of (only to express negative ideas)
will vs. ing-form
example:
I'm buying the meat.
means: I'm going to do it for sure.
OK, I'll buy the beer.
means: I'm already buying the meat so it makes no difference.
example:
I reckon it will cost 7,000.
The calculation arrived. It's going to cost 9,000.
will/shall + progressive
example:
Please give this to him.
answers
OK. I'll see him tomorrow.
means: deciding now to help.
OK. I'll be seeing him tomorrow.
means: I'm seeing him anyway, so I've got no problem in helping.
example:
When will you do it again?
means: Do it!
When will you be doing it again?
means: I know you are going to do it sooner or later. Just let me know when.
statements are always non-progressive
example:
The satellite will reach the moon on …